SIX YEARS AGO, I posted an article on this blog titled Fentanyl Becomes Deadly Force. It said, “The deadly heroin and opioid epidemic is expected to become even deadlier with the increasing presence of Fentanyl in America.” During the first quarter of 2017, heroin combined with Fentanyl was detected in 61% of opioids seized for evidence and inspected in DEA labs. So far in 2023, laboratory testing indicates 70% of pills seized by DEA contain a lethal dose of fentanyl. DEA has already seized a record 86 million fentanyl pills in 2023, which exceeds the 2022 total of 58 million pills.1 Fentanyl is being illegally manufactured in labs (primarily in China) at extremely low cost. It is produced in powder form, and is also pressed into pills, and smuggled into the United States. U.S. Customs and Border Protection’s (CBP) Border Patrol and Office of Field Operations (OFO) together seized 27,000 pounds of fentanyl at the southern border to the U.S. in 2023, up from 14,700 pounds in 2022.
More Americans than ever are dying from fentanyl overdoses as the fourth wave of the opioid epidemic crashes through every community, in every corner of the country.
The DEA Laboratory System reported in 2022 that approximately 23% of fentanyl powder and 7% of fentanyl pills seized by the DEA contained xylazine.3Xylazine is called “tranq” on the streets because of its powerful tranquilizing effects. It is currently approved for use as a non-opioid tranquilizer in veterinary medicine, most commonly in cats, dogs, horses, sheep, and cattle. It is not a controlled substance in the United States because it is manufactured for veterinary anesthesia purposes. Heroin and/or fentanyl used with tranq typically causes a zombie-like effect in humans. (See “Philadelphia Kensington Ave.”)
According to North Jersey Recovery Center, tranq is one of the most dangerous drugs on the street.4 Tranq tends to amplify the effects of opioids. Because of this, dealers often add it to opioids to give buyers a stronger high as a way to secure repeat business. Serious side effects of abusing tranq include blurry vision, increased blood sugar levels, slow or ineffective breathing, slower heart rate, low blood pressure, coma, and death. Because tranq slows blood flow in the body, wounds are slow to heal, which leads to infection, necrosis, and limb amputations. Naloxone (Narcan) will not reverse the effects of tranq, so there is no quick intervention technique available in the streets for use by first responders for overdose.
Society continues to see drug addicts as “undesirables” who should Just quit already! The saying “there but for the grace of God go I” does not seem to apply to addiction because most people are convinced they will never become addicted to drugs or booze. I know from personal experience that it’s easy to shame and condemn myself without the help of my family, friends, and neighbors. So, it is critical that we work toward reducing and eliminating stigma related to substance use disorders. The shame associated with drug addiction will not go away on its own. It must be addressed head on.
The solution is redemption, both on a societal and a personal level. Redemption, even at its simplest definition, means saving or being saved from the sin and error of one’s lifestyle. As Christians in recovery, our redemptive work with alcoholics and drug addicts must mirror the ministry of Jesus Christ. Never once did He consider Himself above the sick and suffering, the prostitutes and adulterers, or anyone else. He considered no one “less desirable.” The first step in this any any ministry is love.
THIS BLOG SITE HAS gone through several changes over time, some related to content and categories, some to its appearance. Under the NEW title LET’S MEET JESUS: Surprised by Grace in the Mess We Make you will find a shorter list of categories: RECOVERY, SPIRITUALITY, and PSYCHOLOGY. Silas, my 4-legged sidekick, will be helping me reach out, so expect cat pics galore! Although I will be taking a break from posting articles on theology, doctrine, and apologetics, previously published posts will remain in the archives. Moving forward, my mission is to individuals who struggle with mental illness, active addiction, shame, guilt, and poor self-image because this has been MY OWN story.
“For freedom Christ has set us free; stand firm therefore, and do not submit again to a yoke of slavery” (Gal. 5:1).
Along with these changes, my infamous promises for a podcast are finally coming true. It will be complementary to topics presented in this blog. The title of the podcast is THERE IS FREEDOM: Grace-Based Solutions for Addiction and Mental Illness, and its first issue will be uploaded on Sunday, December 3, 2023. Weekly issues will follow on successive Sunday evenings. Readers of this blog will receive a weekly notice and link for each issue when it is uploaded.
IT MIGHT SOUND STRANGE to hear the words love, mercy, and judgment in the same breath, but these three concepts are delicately interwoven and must be understood together. They are integral to understanding God’s response to sin. As Paul said, “…the wages of sin is death, but the free gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord” (Rom. 6:23). Sin gives rise to God’s righteous judgment. In other words, sin results in an adjudication of guilt and a penalty. Yes, there is punishment for sin, but there also is forgiveness. In this article, we will look closely at God’s steadfast love and infinite mercy, and explore His righteous judgment.
David wrote, “Blessed is the one whose transgression is forgiven, whose sin is covered” (Psa. 32:1). David is telling us that God’s forgiveness of sin is the preeminence of His love and mercy. Through undeserved favor, God counts no iniquity against us if we are in Christ (v.2). Rather than try to hide it, David acknowledged his sin. He warns against waiting to pray in the midst of the rushing waters, when the din of sinful indulgence is louder than the smallness of our foxhole prayers. Instead, David says, “…let everyone who is godly offer prayer to [God] at a time when [He] may be found” (v.6). David prays, “You are a hiding place for me; you preserve me from trouble; you surround me with shouts of deliverance” (v.7).
“What shall we say then? Are we to continue in sin that grace may abound? By nomeans! How can we who died to sin still live in it?” (Rom. 6:1-2).
Nearly 1,100 years span the time between David’s repentance from his sexual sin and murder involving Bathsheba (see 1 Sam. 11) and the time of Paul’s letter to the Romans. Paul writes to the believers at Rome, “Let not sin therefore reign in your mortal body, to make you obey its passions. Do not present your members to sin as instruments for unrighteousness, but present yourselves to God as those who have been brought from death to life, and your members to God as instruments for righteousness” (Rom. 6:12-13). As sinners, we were slaves to our sinful nature. But now, having been set free from the bondage of sin by the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, we are to become slaves of righteousness (see Rom. 6:17-18).
“Do you not know that if you present yourselves to anyone as obedient slaves, you are slaves of the one whom you obey, either of sin, which leads to death, or of obedience, which leads to righteousness” (Rom. 6:16, NRSV).
Sin requires judgment (adjudication) and punishment (a “sentence” or “payment”). In fact, the wages of our sin is death (Rom. 6:23). Moreover, there is no question of our guilt, for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God (see Rom. 3:23). A transliteration of Romans 3:10-12 essentially states, “As it is written, there is none righteous, not even one. There is none understanding, there is none seeking after God. All have turned away. Together, they have become worthless. There is none who is practicing good; there is not so much as one.”1 Accordingly, we will never be able to save ourselves by our good deeds.
In His infinite grace and mercy, God prepared a plan for our redemption before the foundation of the world. In the Letter to the Hebrews, we learn that under the first covenant gifts and sacrifices were offered that could never perfect the conscience of the worshiper. These “sin offerings” only covered unintentional violations regarding food and drink, various washings, and other regulations of the Law (see Heb. 9:9-10). There were “trespass/guilt offerings” under the first covenant for intentional sins. However, the process was rather complex, and there were no guarantees.
When Christ appeared, he entered once for all into the Holy of Holies—beyond the veil, if you will—not by means of the blood of goats and calves, but by his own blood. Christ is therefore the mediator of a new covenant, through which we receive the promise of eternal salvation. Through the death of Christ, we are redeemed once and for all from our transgressions. This was not possible under the first covenant. The Law of Moses was never meant to save us from judgment, but merely to show us the impossibility of fulfilling the Law, thus the need for a Savior. Paul wrote, “…thanks be to God, that you who were once slaves of sin have become obedient from the heart to the standard of teaching to which you were committed, and, having been set free from sin, have become slaves of righteousness” (Rom. 6:17-18).
God’s righteousness always acts in accordance with what is right. In fact, He is the final standard of what is right.2 God told Isaiah, “I the LORD speak the truth; I declare what is right” (Isa. 45:19). Moses said of God, “…his work is perfect, for all his ways are justice. A God of faithfulness and without iniquity, just and upright is he” (Deut. 32:4). Paul tells us that God sent Jesus to the cross to die for our iniquities “…as a propitiation by his blood, to be received by faith. This was to show God’s righteousness, because in his divine forbearance he had passed over former sins” (Rom. 3:25-26).
Paul writes, “The righteous shall live by faith” (Rom. 1:17). Why is this important? Because “…the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who by their unrighteousness suppress the truth” (v.18). The power of sin has been broken by the death of Jesus. Why then do countless believers in Christ continue to sin? I will only answer for me. I sometimes forget about God’s love and mercy, and his demand for righteousness. I forget that He is sovereign; that He has not only a right to judge, but an obligation to judge.
There is an intentionality in Paul’s teachings that can be summarized as follows: We must see ourselves asformer slaves to sin, and, presently as slaves to righteousness. Sin came with a cost, and someone had to pay. Consequently, sin gives rise to God’s righteous judgment. But, it is through the righteousness of Christ that grace intervenes with the Law of God. Paul took delight in the Law because if it had not been for the law, he would not have known sin (see Rom. 7:22). And when sin is laid bare, we are able to recognize our servitude to it. We will continue to struggle with temptation and sin throughout our journey on earth, but thanks be to Christ we no longer are slaves to sin.
Steven Barto, BS Psy, ThM
Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture references contained herein are from the English Standard Version (ESV).
References 1 Bible Hub, “Greek Interlinear Bible,” https://biblehub.com/interlinear/romans/3.htm 2 Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology, Second Edition: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2020), 243.
ONE OF THE MOST prolific questions mankind has asked throughout history is whether human beings (hereafter, “persons”) have a “soul.” This topic is critical to understanding the concept of free moral agency, as this applies to conscious decision-making regarding right and wrong; and, whether man survives the death of the body in the afterlife. Except for those holding a religious view of the world, most scientists deny the existence of the soul.
Immortality is the indefinite existence of a person after death, when the soul leaves the body and continues to exist. The substance that survives death of the body is an immaterial soul. Beyond the Platonic concept that immortality implies survival of the soul, only Christianity, Judaism, and Islam teach immortality as the persistence of the soul and resurrection of the physical body. To achieve this, the spiritual realm must provide for an intermediate state in which the soul exists until reunited with its body. It is my argument that the soul exists despite scientific argument to the contrary; that it consists of the persistent and vital part of persons; and, that the soul survives physical death by its very nature.
The concept of Dualism faces a troubling question: how the mind and body interact. Immaterial souls have no mass and do not occupy space. Locke and Hume argue that persons are nothing more than a bundle of psychological dispositions, beliefs, and memories. Materialism makes the claim that everything that exists is material; nothing exists beyond particles, molecules, planets, stars, and galaxies. It further claims that we can only attain an understanding of reality from what science says about it. Naturalism goes in a different direction, denying the existence of a supernatural or metaphysical aspect to reality. Broadly speaking, Dualism is the division of life into two overarching spheres or principles, generally antithetical to one another. Likely, the earliest concept of Dualism in Christian thought was Gnosticism, which posited two gods: the “good god” of the mind and spirit and the “evil god” of nature and materiality.
The Argument
First, philosophers who argue from the position of Dualism espouse a critical difference between properties of body and soul. Each survive death differently and can exist apart from one another if only for a short time. Humans are comprised of a material body (substance) and an essence (soul). “Substance” in this instance bears the physical properties of humans; “soul” bears the metaphysical properties—mind, will, and “person.” The concepts of first-person perspective (“Itaste something sweet.”) and intentionality (“Idesire to teach and intend to earn a PhD.”) are unique to persons. J.P. Moreland says, “Human persons are identical to immaterial substances, namely, to souls.”1 Further, persons are capable of metacognition (the ability to know they are thinking, and the ability to think about what they are thinking); and, they possess a sense of “oughtness” and “responsibility” (e.g., a code of moral conduct).
J.P. Moreland has noted that “self” has replaced the soul in contemporary psychology. This is unfortunate as psychologists tend to identify self as “psyche.” These terms are not necessarily identical. Self has often been viewed as having an existence of its own, possessing “identity,” a sense of continuity over time, and the capacity to instigate and evaluate action. These attributes mirror the philosophical/theological concept of soul. It has been said that a man or woman is still the same person even if he or she lost a leg or an arm, or had a kidney excised by a surgeon. However, J. K. Howard claims that although this is true regarding the body, the same cannot be said of the soul as no part can exist independently of the whole.2
Second, the continued existence of “person” over time is evidence for the existence of the soul. If self were to be considered the mere relational aspect of persons, there would be no allowance for personal moral agency. Instead, self would be the victim of events of random cause and concern. Truly personal actions require time and a unified self that result from the dynamics of personal agency and history of behaviors. C.S. Lewis believed if mental processes are determined solely by the motions of atoms in the human brain, then we have no reason to suppose our beliefs are true.3 “Essence” is always separated from actual, physical, reality. For example, the “sweetness” of an apple is separate from the physical existence of an apple. For Kant, it is the self that provides transcendental unity regarding thoughts and perceptions. Locke said the mind, in all its thoughts and reasoning, has no other immediate object by its own ideas, which it alone can contemplate.4 These two issues involve having an awareness of self beyond existence of a physical body.
A person can be five-foot-eleven at age 29 but measure only five-foot-eight at age 89, yet he or she remains essentially the same person. Physical changes in the human body over time do not impact the persistence of “person.” If material changes do not alter the essence of persons, and death is a material change, then death cannot alter the essence of persons. Analytically, it is proper to say, “a tall man is a man,” but the comment “Abraham Lincoln was a great president” is a synthetic proposition.
Third, so-called near-death experiences (NDEs) may provide evidence for the existence of the soul. Plato recorded a near-death experience, the “Myth of Er,” in the 4th century BC at the end of The Republic. Plato related the story of a soldier named Er who seemingly died on the battlefield only to awaken twelve days later. Er was able to provide details about the soul’s immortality and its progress after death. According to a 1991 Gallup Poll estimate, 13 million Americans, 5% of the population, have reported that they have had a near-death experience. Research has demonstrated that near death experiences are no more likely to affect the devoutly religious than the agnostic or atheist. Near-death experiences can be experienced by anyone,5 and they can occur at a time when the person is so physically compromised that they are typically unconscious, comatose, or clinically dead. Considering NDEs from both a medical perspective and logically, it should not be possible for unconscious people to often report highly lucid experiences that are clear and logically structured. Most people who experience NDEs report super-normal consciousness at the time of their experience.6
A. Rousseau, L. Dams, Q. Massart, et al. recently conducted a medical analysis of reported NDEs among ICU patients. During the first 7 days after discharge, all eligible patients were assessed in a face-to-face interview for NDEs using the Greyson NDE scale, dissociative experiences using the Dissociative Experience Scale, and spirituality beliefs. Out of the 126 included patients, 19 patients (15%) reported having experienced a NDE as identified by the Greyson NDE scale. In conclusion, Rousseau and colleagues wrote, “The recall of NDE is not so rare in the ICU. In our cohort, cognitive and spiritual factors outweighed medical parameters as predictors of the emergence of NDE.”7
NDEs are reported by about 17% of those who nearly die.8 They have been reported by children, adults, scientists, physicians, priests, ministers, among the religious and the skeptics, and from countries throughout the world. While no two NDEs are the same, there are characteristic features that are commonly observed: a perception of seeing and hearing apart from the physical body; passing into or through a tunnel; encountering a mystical light; intense and generally positive emotions; a review of part or all prior life experiences; encountering deceased loved ones; and a choice to return to earthly life.9 Michael Potts wrote, “I… argue that the present NDEs [near death experiences] do offer persuasive evidence for life after death.”10 He said the phenomena reported by individuals who were resuscitated from cardiac arrest included viewing one’s body, observing resuscitation, moving in a tunnel toward a light, visions of dead relatives, and visions of Jesus Christ.
Robert Martone prepared a rebuttal to recent studies whose authors argued bodily sensations in NDEs involving vivid memories might merely be a strong impression of being real, rather than being true events, adding they might reflect something more fundamental than religious or cultural expectations. For example, mere reflection in changes of brain function as death approaches. NDEs famously include one’s life “flashing before the eyes;” the sensation of leaving the body (often seeing one’s own face and body, blissfully traveling through a tunnel toward a light); and, feeling “at one” with something akin to “God.”11 Martone believes these contrary arguments show significant weaknesses because they are based purely on subjective reports—some taken decades after the event.
Christianity has been accused of providing nothing more than a very elementary argument for life after death, especially how a dead, decomposed, cremated, or obliterated body can possibly be resurrected. However, these defeaters are not convincing because they fail to address metaphysical forces. Dualism answers these claims by positing that the human brain is not the same as the human “mind.” The Bible says man is made up of body, mind, and spirit (1 Thes. 5:23). Man was created as a tripartite being in the image of God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Gen. 1:26-27). Jesus told the disciples, “And do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell” (Matt. 10:28). Paul wrote, “For the Lord himself will descend from heaven with a cry of command, with the voice of an archangel, and with the sound of the trumpet of God. And the dead in Christ will rise first. Then we who are alive, who are left, will be caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the Lord in the air, and so we will always be with the Lord” (1 Thes. 4:16-17).
Conclusion
Dualism allows for a critical difference between properties of body and soul. Humans are comprised of a material body (substance) and an essence (soul). The concepts of first-person perspective and intentionality support the dual nature of persons. Continued existence of “person” over time, and the perpetual notion of moral agency further suggest the existence of the soul. If the human brain were composed merely of atoms, persons would have no basis for religious and other beliefs. Near-death experiences have been accounted for as early in human history as Plato. The universality of experience, and the lack of scientific explanation for cognitive experience during cessation of physical life, establishes the likely existence of the soul. It is therefore my conclusion that persons are comprised of physical properties and metaphysical properties; that human persons have both a body and a soul.
Steven Barto, BS Psy, ThM
Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture reference are taken from the English Standard Version (ESV).
Bibliography
1 J.P. Moreland and Scott Rae, Body and Soul: Human Nature and the Crisis in Ethics (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2000), 121. 2 J.K. Howard, “The Concept of Soul in Psychology and Religion,” in Faith & Thought, No. 98 (1970), 63-84. 3 C.S. Lewis, Miracles (New York: Touchstone, 1975), 24. 4 Bertrand Russell, The History of Western Philosophy (New York: Touchstone, 1945), 702. 5 David San Filippo PhD, “An Overview of the Near-Death Experience Phenomenon,” National Louis University Digital Commons (Dec. 2006), https://digitalcommons.nl.edu/faculty_publications/27 6 Jeffrey Long, MD, “Near Death Experiences: Evidence for Their Reality,” NCBI (2014 Sep-Oct.) 111(5), 372-380. 7 A. Rousseau, L. Dams, Q. Massart, et al., “Incidents of Near-Death Experiences in Patients Surviving a Prolonged Critical Illness and Their Long-Term Impact: A Prospective Observational Study,” Critical Care (Feb. 27, 2023), https://ccforum.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13054-023-04348-2 8 Zingrone and Alvarado, “Western Adult Near-Death Experiences: Features, Circumstances, and Incidence,” in The Handbook of Near-Death Experiences: Thirty Years of Investigation (Santa Barbara: Praeger/ABC-CLIO, 2009), 17–40. 9 A.R. Moody, Life After Life (Covington: Mockingbird Books; 1975). 10 Michael Potts, PhD, “The Evidential Value of Near-Death Experiences for Belief in Life After Death,” Journal of Near-Death Studies (Summer 2002), https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc799266/,University of North Texas Libraries, UNT Digital Library, https://digital.library.unt.edu 11 Robert Martone, “New Clues Found in Understanding Near-Death Experiences,” Scientific American Journal (Sept. 10, 2019). https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-clues-found-in-understanding-near-death-experiences/.
LET ME GET RIGHT to the point. We have not been given grace so we can keep on sinning! Among other things, God’s grace is aggressive forgiveness. No matter the sin, grace abounds. No matter when in your life you seek salvation through Christ, grace abounds. When it’s sin against grace, grace wins. But, none of this means we can continue in sin. The number of individuals who profess Christ as Savior and Lord but continue in habitual sin is staggering. Some believers wrongly think it is appropriate to carry on in sin because God is glorified when grace abounds. This is irrational thinking; habitual sin ruins a believer’s spiritual growth. Sin begets more sin, but thank God that grace abounds for forgiveness of sins, and it gives us the power to overcome sin.
Habitual sin is defined as the practice of sinning over and over without remorse. Repeated sinning hardens our hearts for true repentance. Of course, temptation is prolific in our lives, but sin must never become an unchallenged habit. Paul often taught on the need for righteousness, contrasting it with the ungodliness of men (see Rom. 1:16-18). Martin Luther said, “Sin, in the Scripture, means not only the outward works of the body, but all the activities that move men to the outward works, namely, the inmost heart, will all its powers”1 [emphasis added]. Accordingly, habitual sin is a behavioral choice. John adamantly states, “Whoever makes a practice of sinning is of the devil, for the devil has been sinning from the beginning. The reason the Son of God appeared was to destroy the works of the devil” (1 John 3:8). We should walk in victory over sin.
Do you willingly sin? Are you held captive by habitual sin?
The writer of Hebrews tells us, “…if we go on sinning deliberately after receiving the knowledge of the truth, there no longer remains a sacrifice for sins, but a fearful expectation of judgment” (Heb. 10:26). Show of hands. How many of you are confused about this verse? I thought we cannot lose our salvation? Verses 26 and 27 are talking about willfully sinning and refusing to repent. The hard truth of this passage is that deliberately sinning after receiving the knowledge of the truth likely indicates you are not be a genuine believer of the gospel. A footnote in the ESV Study Bible says, “…these are people who have never genuinely embraced the gospel in a way that has resulted in a life of faith, obedience, and the bearing of fruit.”2
Hebrews teaches us that genuine believers in Christ know by faith that their hearts have been washed clean of evil through His death and resurrection.
What punishment do you think is adequate for those who claim to be Christians, yet trample the Son of God underfoot and profane the blood by which they have been sanctified? How should God respond to believers who outrage the Spirit of grace through unrepentant sinning? Speaking from the heart, at times I have questioned my salvation. Pornography ripped a hole in my heart and quenched the Holy Spirit. I sat, night after night, binging on sexual images, seeking fulfillment of fleshly pleasure. Pornography had become a kind of drug to me. I was addicted. As I continued in sin, I feared eternal damnation. I often sinned on purpose, knowing better. Worse, at times I did not seem to care that I was sinning. Indeed, this was an indication that my heart was not aligned with God.
Pornography is one of the most prominent habitual sins in the life of Christians today. I believe pornography is a form of prostitution. Typically, pornography uses actors who are paid to portray sexual behavior intended to arouse the viewer of the pornography. Prostitutes are paid to provide a sexual service, which is intended to arouse the individual engaging with the prostitute. Paul said, “Shall I then take the members of Christ and make them members of a prostitute? Never! Or do you not know that he who is joined to a prostitute becomes one body with her” (1 Cor. 6:15b-16). The word “prostitute” in the Greek is πόρνοι (pornoi), literally translated “sexually immoral.” Did you catch that? Pornoi! Jesus said, “You have heard that it was said, ‘You shall not commit adultery.’ But I say to you that everyone who looks at a woman with lustful intent has already committed adultery with her in his heart” (Matt. 5:27-28)[emphasis added].
Go, and Sin No More
God’s grace is shown by his aggressive and perpetual forgiveness. This means that His grace is sufficient for each one of us no matter our past behavior. Whenever it is sin versus grace, grace wins every time. Yet, we are not given grace in order to keep on sinning. Instead, grace gives us the power to overcome sin. When repeated sin becomes an unchallenged habit, our hearts are hardened to the things of God. Part of the process of overcoming habitual sin is to change the habits that facilitate it. The only way to effectively defeat sin is to confess it to God and forsake it. Forsaking sin goes beyond confessing and resolving not to repeat it. To “forsake” something requires a fundamental change in attitude and behavior toward that thing. We were once slaves to sin, but now we are slaves to righteousness. We must forsake our sinful lives and chase after the righteousness of Christ.
Steven Barto, BS Psy, ThM
Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture references contained herein are from the English Standard Version (ESV).
References 1 Martin Luther, Commentary on Romans (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1954), xv. 2ESV Study Bible, Lane T. Dennis, editor (Wheaton: Crossway, 2008), 2378.